Genealogy (from Greek Greek , an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, is the language of the Greeks. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. In its ancient form, it is the language of classical ancient Greek literature and the New Testament of: γενεά, genea, "generation"; and λόγος, logos, "knowledge") is the study of families and the tracing of their lineages and history. Genealogists use oral traditions, historical records, genetic analysis, and other records to obtain information about a family and to demonstrate kinship Kinship is a relationship between any entities that share a genealogical origin, through either biological, cultural, or historical descent. And descent groups, lineages, etc. are treated in their own subsections, see Contents below and pedigrees A pedigree chart is a diagram that shows the occurrence and appearance or phenotypes of a particular gene or organism and its ancestors from one generation to the next, most commonly humans, show dogs, and race horses. The word pedigree is a corruption of the French "pied de grue" or crane's foot, because the typical lines and split of its members. The results are often displayed in charts or written as narratives.

The pursuit of family history tends to be shaped by several motivations, including the desire to carve out a place for one's family in the larger historical picture, a sense of responsibility to preserve the past for future generations, and a sense of self-satisfaction in accurate storytelling.^[1]

Some scholars^[who?] differentiate between genealogy and family history While genealogy is the convenient label for the field, family history is the over-arching term, since genealogy in the strict sense is only concerned with tracing unified lineages.[dubious – discuss] Other sectors of family history, such as one-name studies, may pay only rudimentary attention to lineages, or may emphasize biography rather than, limiting genealogy to an account of kinship, while using "family history" to denote the provision of additional details about lives and historical context.

Overview

Hobbyist genealogists typically pursue their own ancestry and that of their spouses. Professional genealogists may also conduct research for others, publish books on genealogical methods, teach, or work for companies that provide software or online databases. Both try to understand not just where and when people lived, but also their lifestyles, biographies, and motivations. This often requires—or leads to—knowledge of antiquated laws, old political boundaries, migration trends, and historical social conditions.

Genealogists sometimes specialize in a particular group, e.g. a Scottish clan Scottish clans , give a sense of identity and shared descent to people in Scotland and to their relations throughout the world, with a formal structure of Clan Chiefs officially registered with the court of the Lord Lyon, King of Arms which controls the heraldry and Coat of Arms. Each clan has its own tartan patterns, usually dating to the 19th; a particular surname A surname is a name added to a given name and is part of a personal name. In many cases, a surname is a family name; the family-name meaning of "surname" first appeared in 1375. Many dictionaries define "surname" as a synonym of "family name". In Western countries, it is also commonly known as a "last name,", such as in a one-name study A one-name study is a project researching all occurrences of a surname, as opposed to a particular pedigree or descendancy (descendants of one person or couple). Some "one-namers" may restrict their research geographically, perhaps to one country, but true one-namers collect all occurrences world-wide; a small community, e.g. a single village or parish, such as in a one-place study One-place studies are a branch of family history with a focus on the entire population of a single European village or community, not just a single, geographically dispersed family line; or a particular, often famous, person. Bloodlines of Salem Bloodlines of Salem is a Salt Lake City-based family-history group in the United States of America. Its purpose was described as providing a "place where visitors share ideas and information about the Salem witch trials of 1692, its participants and their families. Many visitors have researched and proved their descents from one or more of is an example of a specialized family-history group. It welcomes members who are able to prove descent from a participant of the Salem Witch Trials or who choose simply to support the group.

Genealogists and family historians often join family history societies A family history society is a society, often charitable or not-for-profit, that allows member genealogists and family historians to profit from shared knowledge. Large societies often own libraries containing large collections, sponsor research seminars and foreign trips, and publish journals. Some societies concentrate on a specific niche, such, where novices can learn from more experienced researchers. Such societies may also index records to make them more accessible, and engage in advocacy and other efforts to preserve public records and cemeteries.

Historical background

Historically, in Western societies the focus of genealogy was on the kinship and descent Kinship is a relationship between any entities that share a genealogical origin, through either biological, cultural, or historical descent. In anthropology the kinship system includes people related both by descent and marriage, while usage in biology includes descent and mating. Human kinship relations through marriage are commonly called " of rulers and nobles, often arguing or demonstrating the legitimacy of claims to wealth and power. The term often overlapped with heraldry Heraldry is the profession, study, or art of devising, granting, and blazoning arms and ruling on questions of rank or protocol, as exercised by an officer of arms. Heraldry comes from Anglo-Norman herald, from the Germanic compound harja-waldaz, "army commander". The word, in its most general sense, encompasses all matters relating to, in which the ancestry of royalty was reflected in their coats of arms A coat of arms, more properly called an armorial achievement, armorial bearings, or often just arms for short, in European tradition, is a design belonging to a particular person and used by them in a wide variety of ways. Historically, they were used by knights to identify them apart from enemy soldiers. In Continental Europe, commoners were able. Many claimed noble ancestries are considered fabrications by modern scholars, such as the Anglo-Saxon Anglo-Saxons is the term usually used to describe the invading Germanic tribes in the south and east of Great Britain from the early 5th century AD, and their creation of the English nation, to the Norman conquest of 1066. The Benedictine monk, Bede, identified them as the descendants of three Germanic tribes: chronicles that traced the ancestry of several English kings to the god Woden Old English Wōden, Old High German Wôdan is a deity of Anglo-Saxon and Continental polytheism, together with Norse Odin representing a development of a Proto-Germanic god, *Wōdanaz.

Genealogical research in the United States was first systematized in the early 19th century, especially by John Farmer (1789–1838).^{[citation needed]} Before Farmer's efforts, tracing one's genealogy was seen as an attempt by colonists to secure a measure of social standing within the British Empire, an aim that was counter to the new republic's egalitarian, future-oriented ethos.^{[citation needed]} As Fourth of July celebrations commemorating the Founding Fathers and the heroes of the Revolutionary War became increasingly popular, however, the pursuit of 'antiquarianism,' which focused on local history, became acceptable as a way to honor the achievements of early Americans.^{[citation needed]} Farmer capitalized on the acceptability of antiquarianism to frame genealogy within the early republic's ideological framework of pride in one's American ancestors. He corresponded with other antiquarians in New England, where antiquarianism and genealogy were well established, and became a coordinator, booster, and contributor to the growing movement. In the 1820s, he and fellow antiquarians began to produce genealogical and antiquarian tracts in earnest, slowly gaining a devoted audience among the American people. Though Farmer died in 1839, his efforts led to the creation of the New England Historic Genealogical Society The New England Historic Genealogical Society, also known as NEHGS, is the oldest and largest genealogical society in the United States, founded in 1845. Today it has over 20,000 members worldwide. The Society's headquarters and library are located in Boston, Massachusetts at 99-101 Newbury Street. The mission of NEHGS is to, "Collect,, which publishes the New England Historical and Genealogical Register. The society is one of New England's oldest and most prominent organizations dedicated to the acquisition, preservation, and dissemination of public records and private monuments that would otherwise have decayed and been forgotten.^[2]

The Genealogical Society of Utah, founded in 1894, later became the Family History Department of the Mormon church. The department's research facility, the Family History Library, which has developed the most extensive genealogical record-gathering program in the world,^{[citation needed]} was established to assist in tracing family lineages for special religious ceremonies that Mormons believe will seal family units together for eternity. This fulfilled a biblical prophecy stating that the prophet Elijah would return to 'turn the heart of the fathers to the children, and the heart of the children to their fathers.'^[3]

In modern times, genealogy became more widespread, with commoners as well as nobility researching and maintaining their family trees.^[4] Genealogy received a boost in the late 1970s with the premiere of the television adaptation of Alex Haley Alex Haley was an American writer. He is best known as the author of Roots: The Saga of an American Family and The Autobiography of Malcolm X (written in collaboration with Malcolm X)'s account of his family line, Roots: The Saga of an American Family Roots: The Saga of an American Family is a novel written by Alex Haley and first published in 1976. It was adapted into a hugely popular, 12-hour television miniseries, Roots, in 1977, and a 14-hour sequel, Roots: The Next Generations, in 1979,^[5] With the advent of the Internet The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet Protocol Suite to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope that are linked by a broad array of electronic and, the number of resources readily accessible by genealogists has vastly increased, resulting in an explosion of interest in the topic.^[6] According to some sources, genealogy is one of the most popular topics on the Internet.^[7] The Internet has become not only a major source of data for genealogists, but also of education and communication.

Genealogical research process

Genealogical research is a complex process that uses historical records and sometimes genetic analysis to demonstrate kinship. Reliable conclusions are based on the quality of sources, ideally original records, the information within those sources, ideally primary or firsthand information, and the evidence that can be drawn, directly or indirectly, from that information. In many instances, genealogists must skillfully assemble indirect or circumstantial evidence Circumstantial evidence indirectly proves a fact. It is evidence that requires or allows a trier of fact to make a deduction to conclude that a fact exists. This inference made from a trier of facts supports the truth of assertion . By contrast, direct evidence supports the truth of an assertion directly—i.e., without need for any intervening to build a case for identity and kinship. All evidence and conclusions, together with the documentation that supports them, is then assembled to create a cohesive "genealogy" or "family history While genealogy is the convenient label for the field, family history is the over-arching term, since genealogy in the strict sense is only concerned with tracing unified lineages.[dubious – discuss] Other sectors of family history, such as one-name studies, may pay only rudimentary attention to lineages, or may emphasize biography rather than".^[8] Historical, social, and family context is essential to achieving correct identification of individuals and relationships. Source citation is also important when conducting genealogical research.^[9]

Genealogists begin their research by collecting family documents and stories. This creates a foundation for documentary research, which involves examining and evaluating historical records for evidence about ancestors and other relatives, their kinship ties, and the events that occurred in their lives. As a rule, genealogists begin with the present and work backward in time.

To keep track of collected material, family group sheets and pedigree charts A pedigree chart is a diagram that shows the occurrence and appearance or phenotypes of a particular gene or organism and its ancestors from one generation to the next, most commonly humans, show dogs, and race horses. The word pedigree is a corruption of the French "pied de grue" or crane's foot, because the typical lines and split are used. Formerly handwritten, these can now be generated by genealogical software.

Genetic analysis

Because a person's DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid ( /diːˌɒksɨˌraɪbɵ.nuːˈkleɪ.ɪk ˈæsɪd/ (help·info)) (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and some viruses. The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term storage of information. DNA is often compared to a set of contains information that has been passed down relatively unchanged from early ancestors, analysis of DNA DNA profiling is a technique employed by forensic scientists to assist in the identification of individuals on the basis of their respective DNA profiles. DNA profiles are encrypted sets of numbers that reflect a person's DNA makeup, which can also be used as the person's identifier. DNA profiling should not be confused with full genome sequencing is sometimes used for genealogical research. Two DNA types are of particular interest: mitochondrial DNA Mitochondrial DNA is the DNA located in organelles called mitochondria, structures within eukaryotic cells that convert the energy from food into a form that cells can use. Most other DNA present in eukaryotic organisms is found in the cell nucleus that we all possess and that is passed down with only minor mutations through the matrilineal (direct female) line; and the Y-chromosome The Y chromosome is one of the two sex-determining chromosomes in most mammals, including humans. In mammals, it contains the gene SRY, which triggers testis development if present. The human Y chromosome is composed of about 60 million base pairs. DNA in the Y chromosome is passed from father to son, thus tracking many surnames. Y-DNA analysis is, present only in males, which is passed down with only minor mutations through the patrilineal (direct male) line.

A genealogical DNA test A genealogical DNA test examines the nucleotides at specific locations on a person's DNA for genetic genealogy purposes. The test results are not meant to have any informative medical value and do not determine specific genetic diseases or disorders ; they are intended only to give genealogical information. Genealogical DNA tests generally involve allows two individuals to find the probability that they are, or are not, related within an estimated number of generations. Individual genetic test results A genealogical DNA test examines the nucleotides at specific locations on a person's DNA for genetic genealogy purposes. The test results are not meant to have any informative medical value and do not determine specific genetic diseases or disorders ; they are intended only to give genealogical information. Genealogical DNA tests generally involve are collected in databases to match people descended from a relatively recent common ancestor. See, for example, the Molecular Genealogy Research Project The Sorenson Molecular Genealogy Foundation is a DNA and genealogical research institution with the goal of demonstrating how the peoples of the world are related. SMGF collects DNA samples and genealogical information from individuals across the globe to establish these connections. Although it operates as a not for profit foundation it is a. These tests are limited to either the patrilineal or the matrilineal line.

Data sharing among researchers

Most genealogy software Genealogy software is computer software used to record, organize, and publish genealogical data. At a minimum, genealogy software collects the date and place of an individual's birth, marriage, and death, and stores the relationships of individuals to their parents, spouses, and children. Additionally, most genealogy programs handle additional programs can export information about persons and their relationships in a standardized format called "GEDCOM GEDCOM, an acronym for GEnealogical Data COMmunication, is a de facto specification for exchanging genealogical data between different genealogy software. GEDCOM was developed by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints as an aid to genealogical research" In that format it can be shared with other genealogists, added to online databases, or converted into family web sites A website [citation needed] is a collection of related web pages, images, videos or other digital assets that are addressed relative to a common Uniform Resource Locator (URL), often consisting of only the domain name, or the IP address, and the root path ('/') in an Internet Protocol-based network. A web site is hosted on at least one web server,. Social networking service A social network service focuses on building and reflecting of social networks or social relations among people, e.g., who share interests and/or activities. A social network service essentially consists of a representation of each user , his/her social links, and a variety of additional services. Most social network services are web based and (SNS) websites allow genealogists to share data and build their family trees online. Members can upload their family trees and contact other family historians to fill in gaps in their research.

Volunteerism

Volunteer efforts In general terms, volunteering is the practice of people working on behalf of others or a particular cause without payment for their time and services. Volunteering is generally considered an altruistic activity, intended to promote good or improve human quality of life, but people also volunteer for their own skill development, to meet others, to figure prominently in genealogy. These range from the extremely informal to the highly organized.

On the informal side are the many popular and useful message boards An Internet forum, or message board, is an online discussion site where people can hold conversations in the form of posted messages. They differ from chat rooms in that messages are not shown in real-time, to see new messages the forum page must be reloaded. Also, depending on the access level of a user and/or the forum set-up, a posted message such as Rootschat Rootschat is a free online genealogy forum primarily concentrating on local and family history research in the United Kingdom. As of May 2009 there were over 81,000 members with over 2.1 million postings in 322,500 topics. Since its creation in December 2003, RootsChat has maintained a policy of using volunteer moderators working in close co- and mailing lists An electronic mailing list is a special usage of email that allows for widespread distribution of information to many Internet users. It is similar to a traditional mailing list — a list of names and addresses — as might be kept by an organization for sending publications to its members or customers, but typically refers to four things: a list on particular surnames, regions, and other topics. These forums can be used to try to find relatives, request record lookups, obtain research advice, and much more.

Many genealogists participate in loosely organized projects, both online and off. These collaborations take numerous forms. Some projects prepare name indexes for records, such as probate Probate is the legal process of administering the estate of a deceased person by resolving all claims and distributing the deceased person's property under the valid will. A surrogate court decides the validity of a testator's will. A probate interprets the instructions of the deceased, decides the executor as the personal representative of the cases, and publish the indexes, either off- or online. These indexes can be used as finding aids A finding aid is a document containing detailed information about a specific collection of papers or records within an archive. They are used by researchers to determine whether information within a collection is relevant to their research. The finding aid for a collection is usually compiled by an archivist or librarian during archival processing to locate original records. Other projects transcribe or abstract records. Offering record lookups for particular geographic areas is another common service. Volunteers, such as those involved in Random Acts of Genealogical Kindness Random Acts of Genealogical Kindness is a web-based genealogical research co-op that functions solely by the services of volunteers. It was originated by two researchers in 1999 who saw the need for such a service in their local area. The small site grew very rapidly from being solely a statewide offering to an international service with some 4300 (RAOGK), do record lookups in their home areas for researchers who are unable to travel.

Those looking for a structured volunteer environment can join one of thousands of genealogical societies A family history society is a society, often charitable or not-for-profit, that allows member genealogists and family historians to profit from shared knowledge. Large societies often own libraries containing large collections, sponsor research seminars and foreign trips, and publish journals. Some societies concentrate on a specific niche, such worldwide. Most societies have a unique area of focus, such as a particular surname, ethnicity An ethnic group is a group of people whose members identify with each other, through a common heritage, consisting of a common language, a common culture (often including a shared religion) and a tradition of common ancestry (corresponding to a history of endogamy), geographic area, or descendancy from participants in a given historical event This is a list of hereditary and lineage organizations. It includes societies that limit their membership to those who meet group inclusion criteria, such as descendants of a particular person or group of people of historical importance. It does not include general ethnic heritage societies. Genealogical societies are almost exclusively staffed by volunteers and may offer a broad range of services, including maintaining libraries for members' use, publishing newsletters, providing research assistance to the public, offering classes or seminars, and organizing record preservation or transcription projects.

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